Chapter 25, Half Century Of Change

• The Anti Drug Abuse Act of 1988 was passed
• William Bennett, the drug czar
• attacks against liberal intellectuals that advocated tolerance/legalization of drug use
• the Bush administration tried to make "black" scholarships a form of "reverse discrimination."
• AIDs, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, epidemic hit in 1981
• originally regarded as a gay/homosexual disease
• 1986, the National Black Gay and Lesbian Conference, address and devise solutions to the prejudice and problems faced by black gays and lesbians-racial and sexual minorities
• "Magic" Johnson was infected
• Arthur Ashe, a gifted professional tennis player, got AIDs from surgery
• VP. Quayle: "cultivate higher moral standards and practice abstinence."
• "Magic" resigned from the National Commission on AIDs, "lip service and photo opportunities."
• John Lewis of Georgia, came out for gay civil rights
• Rap reflected alienation
• Afrocentrism: dark skin > more creative, implicitly racist?, 
• Rodney King was beaten, the cops were found "not guilty" 
• $500 million worth of damage was caused by rioting
• New Jersey was racial profiling
• Jasper, TX: two whites dragged a black man to death for a mile
• Giuliani failed to condemn police brutality
• Major black sports figures: Michael Jordan, Sammy Sosa (MVP), Tiger Woods, major representative for Nike
• 1983, first black astronaut
• Clinton had a lot of black appointments in his cabinet
• McKinney of Georgia and Mel Watt of North Carolina, did not lose their seats
• the Black Caucus questioned Clinton's free trade policies
• Clinton took blacks off "welfare" and put them on "workfare"
• Lee Brown became the mayor of Houston, Texas
• Al Sharpton led protests against police brutality
• the Charlotte public schools were resegregated
• the suburban schools have internet, the urban schools don't have basketball nets!
• 30% more blacks graduated college in 1996 than in 1992
• anti-affirmative action cases were won at University of Texas and at University of Washington
• blacks were not attending 4-yr. public universities-either 2yr. colleges or historically black colleges
• blacks criticized Truman for appointing a secretary of state from racist South Carolina
• Why did the US fight in Vietnam, and then not bring equality for blacks?
• blacks were interested in self-government movement in West Africa
• the war funds could have been spent improving economic or civil rights at home
• MLK criticized Vietnam: Thou shall not kill!
• a greater percentage of blacks were drafted for Vietnam
• blacks created a sit-in at the South African embassy in Washington to protest the racial policies of the Republic of South Africa

Greater democracy in South Africa

• F.W. de Klerk became president of S. Africa
• Nelson Mandela was released, head of the black liberation movement
• didn't denounce human right's violations in Cuba
• Bush vowed to defend Saudia Arabia and its oil reserves
• 1991, Congress approved military force against Iraq
• 500,000 troops went to the Middle East
• 1957 to 1986, corrupt rule in Haiti
• the National Guard sent Haitians back to their home country
• California, New York, Florida, and Texas got many Spanish speaking immigrants
• politicians began tapping into racism, blacks vs. hispanics
• Bill Clinton created an advisory board of 2 blacks, one Asian, 1 Hispanic, and 3 European Americans to engage in a national dialogue
• Native Americans were furious they were not included on the board
• democratic Nigeria and Zaire collapsed
• US discussions with Uganda in the United Nations

Chapter 24, Reaction and Progress, p.564-601

• Carter had appointed blacks to important positions in government
• bad developments: unemployment increased. Energy, welfare, and taxes were not handled well.
• Reagan, extremely far right. Criticized "welfare queens" and big government
• Reagan, against affirmative action and equal employment opportunity programs
• Carter took 90% of the black vote
• head of housing and urban development, typically a black position
• William Bell, opposed by civil rights groups
• the US Commission on Civil Rights, Arthur Flemming would be replaced with Clarence Pendleton, a conservative black Republican
• Hart, against virtually every item of the civil rights agenda
• no blacks served as assistant secretary of state
• there HAD been respect for the US Commission on Civil Rights
• Reagan weakened the Legal Enforcement Assistance Administration, stopped enforcement of laws against housing administration and redress of grievances
• the Legal Defense Fund originally partneredw with the federal government to enforce civil rights legislation
• Reagan  wanted nonprofit status for private institutions that practiced racial discrimination
• fought food stamps, Medicaid, student loans, unemployment compensation, child nutrition assistance, and Aid to Families with Dependent Children
• high income groups got a lot of tax relief
• 94% of blacks disapproved of Reagan
• The Myth of Black Progress, a large black underclass developed
• Jackson fought for black opportunities
• Jackson ran for president but the NAACP wanted to vote for a white Democrat.
• Barry Commoner, an environmentalist and Gloria Steinem, a feminist supported Jackson
• great stimulus to black registration and voting
• Jackson was not "Pro-Israel" and had Palestinian sympathies
• 1988, Jackson debated Michael Dukakis, Gart Hart, Richard Gephardt, Al Gore Jr., and Bruce Babbitt
• Jackson received 24% of votes
• Dukakis received 43% of votes
• Vice President George Bush was a formidable candidate
• 90% of blacks voted for Dukakis
• the rich got richer and the poor got poorer
• Bush vetoed a minimum wage increase, Civil Rights Act, motor voter bill, longer unemployment benefits, family leave bill
• Reagan's Scalia and Kennedy, many civil rights gains were lost
• In Patterson v. McLean Credit Union, the Court reversed its 1976 ruling in holding that the Civil Rights Act of 1866 protected an employee in making a contract but did not extend protection to the employee once the contract was made
• Martin v. Wilks, white firefighters could sue Birmingham for making race conscious promotions
• blacks dreaded the retirement of Thurgood Marshall
• President Bush nominated Clarence Thomas, a black conservative. Erwin Griswold, the 87 year old dean of Harvard Law school called Thomas as the "best qualified," a "fantasy."
• Clarence Thomas, a graduate of Yale Law School was appointed by Reagan as assistant secretary for civil rights in the Department of Education

Against Thomas

• the American Federation of Labor
• American Federation of Teachers
• the National Bar Association
• the National Council of Jewish Women
• Gray Panthers
• the National Organization for Women
• People for the American Way
• National Lawyer's Guild
• the United States Student Association
• the NAACP Legal Defense and Education fund

"Uncle Justice Thomas" 

• Anita Hill, professor of law at the University of Oklahoma accused Thomas of sexual harassment

Major African American writers

• Ralph Ellison, Going To The Territory(1986)
• James Baldwin, Evidence of Things Not Seen(1986)
• Leon Forrest, There Is A Tree More Ancient Than Eden(1973), The Bloodworth Orphans(1977), Two Wings To Veil My Face(1983)
• Toni Morrison, The Bluest Eye, Song Of Soloman, Beloved
• Alex Haley, Roots
• Albert Murray, Trainwhistle Guitar(1974), The Spyglass Tree(1991), and the Seven League Boots(1996)
• Maya Angelou, I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings, The Heart Of A Woman 
• James A. McPherson, Hue and Cry
• Ernest Gaines, The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman
• John Edgar Wideman, racial identity in urban life
• Bebe Moore, Your Blues and Mine (1992), Brothers and Sisters(1994)
• Charles Johnson, Middle Passage (1990), Dreamer(1998),
• Walter Mosley, Devil In A Blue Dress
• 90's: Terry McMillan, E. Lynn Harris, homosexuality in the middle class black community

Major Poets

• Robert Hayden
• Nikki Giovanni
• Sam Allen
• Audre Lorde
• Lucile Clifton
• Michael Harper
• Yusef Komunyakaa
• Essex Hemphill
• Rita Dove, Thomas and Beulah(Pulitzer Prize)

New Artistic Institutions

• Amiri Baraka founded the Black Arts Repertory School in Harlem in 1964
• Playwright Douglas Turner Ward founded the Negro Ensemble Company, Day of Absence
• August Wilson, Fences, The Piano Lesson, and Two Trains Running
• August Wilson called to "save black theater institutions," was seen as separatist

Postwar Literary Trends

• Amiri Baraka, black art needed for Black Pride
• The Black Aesthetic, how the black writer should be judged
• mid-1960s: black women writers got popular
• Walker won the Pulitzer Prize for the Color Purple

African Americans In The Graphic Arts

• Hale Woodruff, Trial of the Amistad Mutineers
• Charles Alston, very versatile-portraits, caricatures, and pieces of sculpture.
• Elizabeth Catlett, leading printmaker and sculptor moved to Mexico. Created a black heroes piece, Malcolm Speaks For Us.
• Horace Pippin, exalt the lives of ordinary black folk
• David Driskll, artist and scholar
• Augusta Savage, Head of Dr. Dubois, sang "Lift Every Voice and Sing."
• Paul R. Williams, major architect

Major Composers:

William Grant Still, Ulysses Kay

• Andrew Watts, one of world's foremost pianists
• George Gershwin, Porgy and Bess(1985/1986)

Heard and Seen By Millions

• better jobs: industry, service sector, civil service, the professions
• patronized theaters, nightclubs, and cabarets.
• Jazz: Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Theolonius Monk, Max Roach, Art Tatum

Inventive: Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Cannonball Adderly, Charles Mingus, Herbie Handcock, Sonny Rollins, Jimmy Heath.

Composers: Quincy Jones and Mary Lou Williams

• Wynton Marsalis

Popular Music:

• James Brown, Muddy Waters, Smoky Robinson, Aretha Franklin, Patti LeBelle, the Shirelles, the Four Tops, the Supremes, The Temptations, and the Jackson Five. 

Movies

• crime, sex, and violence> black films.
• mid 1970s, black actors disappeared
• The Color Purple (1986), Spike Lee's She's Gotta Have It(1986) 
• Spike Lee, gave black independent film commercial viability
• Spike Lee produced Malcolm X
• Ghetto films: Boyz N The Hood, Straight Out Of Brooklyn, Menace II Society
• Marlon Rigg's, creative experimental works 
• the 90s were good for male actors: Denzel Washington, Forrest Whittaker, Samuel L. Jackson, Wesley Snipes, Laurence Fishburne, Morgan Freeman, Cuba Gooding Jr., Will Smith.
• Female actors: Whoopi Goldberg, Angela Bassett, Halle Berry.

Painful Films, not commercial sucesses

• Hoop Dreams, documentary-ghetto basketball players
• Amistad, slave-ship mutiny 
• Rosewood, destruction of a black town
• Beloved, indictment of slavery

• whites only wanted to watch black comedies
• blacks don't want to address painful realities of their history

Blacks on TV

• The Flip Wilson Show
• Bill Cosby starred in I SPY
• The Cosby Show and A Different World, student's experiences at a historically black college

• 1993, William Hilliar, editor of the Portland Oregonian, the only statewide daily in Oregon, was elected as the first black president of the American Society of Newspaper Editors
• more blacks could participate in sports after WWII
• Wilma Rudolph won three gold medals in track and field
• 1947, Jackie Robinson was signed by the Brooklyn Dodgers
• 1910 to 1915, Jack Johnson was the world heavyweight champion
• Muhammad Ali refused to be drafted into the US Army on religious grounds
• Ali was convicted of violating the Selective Service Act, he was barred from the ring and stripped of his crown
• the Supreme Court reversed this and he regained his championship title
• successful black athletes used the prestige and publicity to challenge remaining forms of discrimination in American sport and protest the inclusion of nations that espoused racial discrimination in the Olympics

The Black Revolution, p. 523 to 561

• Southerners imposed economic sanctions on blacks involved in civil rights
• Gov. Faubus, governor of Arkansas fought integration of Centra High School in Little Rock
• Muhammad Ali was a Black Muslim
• fair employment laws were passed in NY(1945), MI, MN, PA, CA, OH
• 4 students from the black Agricultural and Technical College in Greensboro, NC sat in at a counter until the store closed
• the Civil Rights Act of 1957 was passed
• Ella Baker, NAACP field organizer
• the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was created
• Hamer created the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
• 1M registered black voters in 12 Southern states
• Kennedy, well briefed by black-staff
• Robert Kennedy intervened in King's arrest
• Kennedy wanted to secure the right to vote for all blacks, increased employment of blacks in federal programs
• Thurgood Marshall, circuit court in New York
• Wade McCree to the district court for E. Michigan
• Spottswood Robinson to the bench in the District of Columbia
• discrimination in federal employment continued
• "freedom riders" were attacked by angry segregationists
• very little new desegregation of Southern schools occurred
• segregation was culturally entrenched in northern schools
• the state of Mississippi tried to deny James Meridith's enrollment
• Kennedy sent the National Guard to secure Meridith's admission and maintain order
• the Emancipation Centennial pointed out racial inequality in American life
• Birmingham, Alabama: Southern Christian Leadership Conference: demanded fair employment practices, desegregation of public facilities, a plan to desegregate, and the dropping of charges against Dr. King and 2,500 other activists.
• Birmingham police used dogs and high pressure water hoses on the marches
• Kennedy had to strengthen voting rights
• veteran labor leader A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin(civil rights leader and peace activist) produced a national demonstration
• the American Jewish Congress, the National Conference of Catholics for Interracial Justice, the National Council of Churches, and the AFL-CIO Industrial Union supported the march
• 200,000 blacks and whites attended, the largest demonstration in the history of the nation's capital
• a black church was bombed in Birmingham in September. 4 children died.
• many Southerners ran on pro-segregation platforms
• 11/22/1963, Kennedy was killed in Dallas
• Edwards v. South Carolina, upheld the right to demonstrate
• Johnson v. Virginia, refused to sit in a section of a courtroom reserved for blacks

The Illusion Of Equality

• Lyndon B. Johnson became the 36th president of the US
• 24th amendment, outlawed poll-taxes
• the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the most far-reaching and comprehensive law in support of racial equality ever enacted by Congress
• EEOC, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
• many public places became private clubs
• 1964, an off-duty policeman killed  a black youth
• 24 black churches were destroyed
• blacks faced much discrimination in housing. High rents for slums, the city would not enforce building codes, etc.
• Thurgood Marshall, 1st black admitted to the U.S. Supreme Court
• the economic disparities between blacks and whites increased among blue collar workers and low income groups
• Los Angeles: poor employment opportunities, poor housing
• Stokely Carmichael, blacks must think in terms of "black power" to combat "white power"
• neighborhood schools were defended
• Berkeley, CA, full racial desegregation
• white parents fled to the suburbs or put their children in private schools

Cynicism Was Breeding

• sit-ins, freedom riders, marches, demonstrations, voter-registration drives
• justice and equality were not to be extended to blacks under any circumstances
• 1. assassination of JFK
• 2. the murder of Malcolm X
• 3. the murder of civil rights workers
• 4. the murder of children
• 5. no one was convicted for these crimes
• 6. Martin Luther King was killed
• 7. the capture of James Earl Ray

Other groups

• militant, action oriented blacks
• the Black Power Conference, two independent nations-one for blacks, one for whites
• the Black Panther Party for Self Defense

The Black Panthers

• Huey P. Netwton led a group of gun-carrying demonstrators into the California state legislature
• he was convicted on a charge of manslaughter of the death of an Oakland policeman
• FBI- Black Panthers were "dangerous and subversive."
• two separate societies- separate and unequal

Other tactics

• demanded churches give 60% of their assets to rehab black economic, social, and cultural life
• gave up the term "Negro"
• insisted on black history classes
• black feminism took off in 1972
• 20% of all Democrat votes
• created the National Black Political Convention
• PUSH, People United To Save Humanity, Rev. Jesse Jackson

Black Dissatisfaction

25% hated jobs, 44% hated community life

Major Groups

• The NAACP
• The US Commission On Civil Rights
• the Civil Rights Division of the Department of Justice

• 1976, 48.7% voted
• The Voter Education Project did not have enough $ to mount a successful campaign
• apathy was very great among young blacks
• 1978, Louis Martin, special assistant to  the president
• Carter cared more about the budget than helping the disadvantaged
• "The Declining Significance of Race" was published by University of Chicago
• poor blacks were falling behind rich blacks

Chapter 22 From Slavery To Freedom, p. 506 to 521

• new position of African Americans
• increased initiative to achieve equality for blacks
• civic, lsbor and religious groups pushed for equality
• "Freedom To Serve" under Truman, all qualified blacks could serve in the army
• abolished racial quotas
• the inclusion of blacks was an overall gain for the army
• Truman-executive order requiring fair employment in the federal services
• opportunities for blacks to receive adequate housing increased
• the CIO, union. A. Philip Randolph and Willard Townsend were elected cie presidents
• the American Friends Service Committee and the American Missionary Association gave specific attention to the problem of race tensions in communities, set up programs to improve intergroup relations, and published reports and studies involving race
• 1947, larger hotels in Washington began to accept black guests
• when DC was desegregated, whites fled to the suburbs of Virginia and Maryland
• railways/airports stopped segregation
• blacks in Georgia cast their votes in the 1946 Democratic primary
• Eisenhower upheld army segregation
• William Hastie, became a judge on the Third US Circuit Court of Appeals
• Dr. King was indicted under a 1921 antiunion law forbidding conspiracy to obstruct the operation of a business
• business decreased by 75%
• White Citizen's Councils fought against desegregation
• "declaration of Constitutional principles": desegregation undercut state's rights
• a reign of terror in the South: white on black violence
• blacks who urged others to vote were murdered in Mississippi
• Nat King Cole was attacked by whites on-stage

Urbanization and its consequences, p. 515

• 52 percent of blacks were living in urban areas
• 1980, 81% of blacks were in urban areas
• whites left cities and took employment opportunities with them
• blacks got by on part-time work, unemployment benefits, and welfare.
• factories and shops of a central city moved to suburbs
• blacks were attacked when they moved into white neighborhoods

Problems

• employment failed to materialize
• unemployment or underemployment-fate
• men were less likely to find work
• thievery, drunkenness, and street brawls resulted
• the extended family was no longer involved

Obstacles:

• the slave system
• legal segregation
• discrimination
• poverty
• racially hostile policies of government and society

• until the 1960s, 75% of black families had a husband and a wife
• the black churh was more stable
• provide social and religious communion
• churches became involved in secular activities: day-care, couple's clubs, social services.
• black clergy got politically active and ran for office themselves
• black newspaper publishing expanded
• black financial institutions expanded
• black insurance companies were pretty stable
• talented blacks felt they could not reach executive or policy making positions

Chapter 21, Fighting For The Four Freedoms, p. 476-504

-the League of Nations sought to check aggression
-powerful nations used it to impose their will on weaker members
-Japan seized Manchuria in 1931
-1922, Mussolini came to power. Wanted to seize Ethiopia.
-the International Council of Friends of Ethiopia was organized with Willis Huggins as executive secretary.
-blacks condemned the fascism
-Hitler refused to treat black Olympic stars with civility in Berlin
-Hitler invaded Poland in September 1939
-Germany conquered Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium.
-America did not want to support a large, standing peacetime army.
-very few blacks were allowed into the military forces.
-A. Philip Randolph and Walter White submitted a 7-point program to give blacks just consideration in thed defense program to President Roosevelt
-Americans hated Hitler but promoted racism
-William Hastie, civilian aide to the secretary of war
-the National Defense Advisory Committee: discrimination at hiring plants was not allowed
-the President spoke against discrimination
-A. Philip Randolph, head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and Maids wanted 50,000 to 100,000 blacks to match on Washington to demand that blacks be given defense industry jobs.
-Executive order 8802, prohibited discrimination in employment in defense industries
-a Fair Employment Practives Committee (FEPC) was established
-white employers and Southern whites opposed the FEPC
-Under the Selective Service Act of 1940, more than 3M blacks registered for service in the armed forces
-more impartial than WWI drafts
-blacks were admitted to the Women's Army Corps (WAC)
-blacks would be received into the Marine Corp
-black officers faced much discrimination in advancing.
-4x as many black soldiers were court marshalled
-Capt. Charles Thomas received the Distinguished Service Cross for heroism
-1945, blacks would be integrated into a white unit on German soil.
-The 99th Pursuit Squadron + the 332nd Fighter Group: major black air combat units
-93rd division, steady fighting in the Orient
-black work in the navy was well praised
-Negro Marines are Marines period.
-black soldiers demanded more equality when possible
-the military confiscated black newspapers
-the War Department forbid discrimination in recreational/transportational facilities
-blacks bought many war bonds
-blacks helped out in the Office of Price Administration(OPA)
-many blacks moved North or West.
-San Francisco, Oakland, Portland, and Seattle experienced much growth.
-06/20/1943: major race riot in Detroit, 6,000 soldiers had to patrol the city
-the Pittsburgh Courier waged a vigorous "Double-V" campaign, victory at home as well as abroad.
-the Office of War Information (OWI) described how blacks were faring in the armed services.
-Walter White of the NAACP published A Rising Wind, based on visits to the war fronts
-a conference in San Francisco was held to describe peace.
-UN Charter preamble, faith in the dignity and worth of all humans
-UNESCO as developed to create a program of fundamental education
-the UN discussions on race were much more mature than Wilson's discussions at Versailles
-Ralph Bunche, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1950 for mediating in the Palestine dispute.
-America had to improve its racial policies to "fight the Communist bloc."

Chapter 20, The American Dilemma

-blacks made their most significant improvements in education in the second half of the 20th Century
-1977: 9.3% of college students are black

-1945, black colleges had white presidents
-Increase in black leadership. By1965, black colleges had black presidents
-1970 Clifton Wharton became the first black president of a white college, Michigan State
-1978, Wharton became a chancellor of the State University of New York system

-1970s: The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare required that institutions have affirmative action hiring programs
-the number of black professors with tenure remained small
-graduate and professional training of blacks increased as a larger number of them sough such opportunities

Court Battles
-1935, Donald Murray was successful in gaining admission to the law school of the University of Maryland.
-1938: Chief Justice Hughes said that it was the duty of the state to provide education for all of its citizens and that provision must be made within the state.
-Maryland and West Virginia made it possible for blacks to attend historically white institutions
-1946, Ada Sipuel fought for admission to the University of Oklahoma law school
-Oklahoma decided to establish a separate law school
-finally gained admission to the university law school in 1949
-G. W. McLaurin went there but the university officials segregated him in the classroom, library, and cafeteria.
-Herman Sweatt was admitted to the University of Texas law school

Southern Fear
-the South did not want Plessy v. Ferguson overturned
-Southerners did not want to open all public institutions of higher education to African Americans
-1951, the University of Louisville employed one black professor
-The NAACP fought segregation as unconstitutional and as a clear contrevention of the “Judeo Christian tradition”
-1954, Brown v. Board of Education, banned segregated public schools because separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.
-the South lagged behind the rest of the nation in extending the use of its resources and facilities to blacks
-By 1935: 83/565 public libraries were open to blacks

Major Black Scholars
-George E. Haynes
-Charles S. Johnson
-E. Franklin Frazier

Humanities Scholars:
-Alain Locke,
-J. Saunders Redding
-Sterling Brown
-Ulysses Lee

Scientific:
-George Washington Carver
-Elmer S. Imes
-Ernest E. Just
-Julian Lewis
-William A. Hinton
-Percy Julian
-Charles Drew
-Daniel Hale Williams

-1916, the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History published the Journal of Negro History
-Carter Woodson, edited the journal
-1931, The Journal of Negro Education, edited by Charles Thompson

Opportunities For Self-Expression

-the richness of the Harlem Renaissance was both a stimulant and an inspiration for the wealth of talent displayed in later years
-Jazz no longer belonged to Harlem, it flourished in New Orleans and Memphis

Major Players
Fletcher Henderson, Jimmie Lunceford, Duke Ellington, Cab Calloway, Count Basie, Louis Armstrong, Lionel Hampton, Teddy Wilson, Earl “Fatha” Hines, Mary Lou Williams
New York, Chicago, Las Angeles clubs employed black orchestras, singers, and dancers
Classical: William Grant Still composed Africa, Afro-American Symphony, and Symphony in G Minor: Song of a New Race
steady increase in widely acclaimed black singers (p. 458)
Paul Robeson and Roland Hayes, Edward Matthews, Aubrey Pankey, Kenneth Spencer, William Warfield
the Daughters of the American Revolution refused to permit Marian Anderson to use Constitution Hall in Washington

White Writer’s Incorporation of black themes
-Paul Green and a number of his colleagues at the University of North Carolina continued to employ black themes and materials in their works
“Dark Symphony,” a poem, was published in the Atlantic Monthly

Arna Bontremps
-1931, God sends Sunday
-1936, Black Thunder
-1939, Drums at Dusk
-1945, They Seek A City
-1966, Anyplace But Here

William Attaway
-1939, Let Me Breathe Thunder

1940s Writing
-Richard Wright wrote Uncle Tom’s Children
-1940, Native Son was published
-1945, Black Boy
-1953, The Outsider

Ralph Ellison
-Invisible Man, National Book Award (1952)
-1964, Shadow and Act

Blacks emergence as actors
-Paul Robeson starred as Orthello
-Hilda Simms in Anna Lucasta
-Gordon Heth, in Deep Are the Roots
-Canada Lee, in On Whitman Avenue
-Hallelujah, 1st all black film

The World Of African Americans
-Negro ghettos continued
-poor housing, unemployment, inadequate recreational facilities, and similar conditions contributed to delinquency among children and separation among parents
-a substantial middle class emerged

Black Muslims
-the Nation of Islam, the Black Muslims were concerned with black alienation
-sought complete separation from the white community
-Malcolm X was a prominent Black Muslim
-he was assassinated early in 1965
-Muhammad Speaks, organizational newspaper

Church Life
-blacks turned to the church for self-expression, recognition and leadership.
“the place of refuge” to the black community

Black Press: A Forum For Politics, Education, and Exposure:
-Frederick Douglass, the North Star, fought slavery
-Fortune’s New York Age, fought the relegation of black Americans to second-class citizenry
-In the 20th century: black newspapers fought for the underpriviledged
move to industrial centers for work
urged support of war
fought for complete integration

-the number of black newspapers increased steadily

p.468
-white newspapers did not present opinions the black community appreciated
-$35 million worth of investment in black newspapers, 10,000 writers
-after WWI, the black professional class grew
-fraternities and sororities, served as the nucleus for civic and recreational facilities
-motion pictures, popular source of entertainment for blacks
-the National Negro Congress (1936), contained 500 black organizations
-1946, fought a Virginia bus company that promoted segregation
-Washington introduced Negro Health Week, to promote good health among the black community
-blacks did not want to live in a separate world from whites
-blacks did not want to be guinea pigs for psychological experiments
-North Carolina and Fisk University undertook to present graphic and scientific pictures of the status of blacks in American society
-most black youth did not have equal opportunities
-the environment of black youth often influenced them to act in shiftless, irresponsible, and aggressive ways
-Gunnar Myrdal of the University of Stockholm-most ambitious study of blacks
-Commission of Interracial Cooperation, fought for equal opportunities for blacks
-Southern Conference for Human Welfare (1938), liberal group to improve the conditions of blacks
-1950s/1960s: psychologists demonstrated that prejudice among children only reflects the attitudes of their parents
-Headstart was developed
-SEEK at the University of New York: Critics thought it would increase the amount of unqualified students for City University.
-the importance of the problem was dramatized.

Chapter 19, The New Deal, p. 419-434

• the number of black wage earners increased after WWI
• unions such as the AFL and railway brotherhoods (Mostly) excluded blacks
• Friends Of Negro Freedom was created in 1920: helped unionize black migrants, protect black tenants, advance black cooperation, and organize forums to educate the masses.
• the National Association for the Promotion of Labor Unionism among Negroes
• Chandler Owen, A Philip Randolph published The Messenger

• an advisory board of white labor radicals and intellectuals was organized: Morris Hillquit, Joseph D. Cannon, Charles Ervin
• The American Negro Labor Congress met for the first time in Chicago in 1925
• looked to unionize blacks
• Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and Maids, was organized by A. Philip Randolph in 1925
• the Pullman Company attacked the brotherhood as a dangerous radical organization
• the AFL, NAACP, and National Urban League endorsed the Sleeping Car Porters
• boll weeevil destroyed Southern crops
• tobacco, cotton, and sucarcane were on the international market which was tough on farmers
• urban land values and the stock market increased
• agriculture, shipbuilding, coal-mining, textile/shoe industries were not enjoying the "Roaring Twenties."
• 1934: 17% of whites and 38% blacks were incapable of self support economically
• 1933: 25% to 40% of blacks were on relief, 3x or 4x as much as whites
• 1935 (Atlanta) 65% of black employables needed public assistance
• large differentials existed between black and white aid($6 more which was considerable)
• black concentration in cities began to give them more political power
• 1917, blacks sent Edward Johnson to the New York assembly
• blacks regarded many black political appointments as tokenism
• John Davis(D) said "he would make no distinctions based on race or creed." and the Progressive Robert FaFollette made a similar statement, blacks began to desert the Republican party
• Republicans were willing to alienate blacks to gain territory in the South.
• Oscar DePriest was elected to Congress in 1928. However, blacks were very disappointd with Herbert Hoover.
• Jessie DePriest attended a tea at the White House which offended many Southerners
• blacks began using their votes to register protests. They studied the voting records of Congress (Votesmart.org) and watched the utterances and policies of presidents in order to ferret out thoe whom they considered their enemies.

• they fought the Senator who killed the anti-lynching bill
• opposed John Parker to the Supreme Court, fought Senators who approved his confirmation.
• blacks began to regard President Hoover as their enemy
• some New York blacks supported Hoover but they did not want Southern Democrats to come to power
• some blacks voted Communist
• Angelo Herndon, prominent Communist from Birmingham who worked as a coal miner. Faced privation, discrimination, and disillusionment he joined the Communist Party.
• He was sentenced to 18 years in prison on charge of inciting an insurrection, a 5 year court battle settled his freedom.
• the International Labor Defense (ILD) secured Angelo's freedom.
• the Scottsboro boys got 99 year sentences.
• 1950, the last of the Scottsboro boys were released.
• In the 1930s the Communists made an effort to join with Middle Class organizations to fight fascism, A. Philip Randolph was not able to attract much support.
• Eleanor Roosevelt was friends with Mary McLeod Bethune, she was photographed at Howard University. Egalitarianism lives!
• 1940, some opposition to Roosevelt had developed among blacks
  
• 1960s, the amount of black judges had doubled
• Roosevelt's "Black Cabinet" contributed but was turned away from speaking with the president
• they were highly intelligent and highly trained individuals
• task: to press for economic and political equality for blacks, increase employment opportunities for blacks in government and labor,
  
• 50,00 blacks performed gov. service in 1933, 200,000 did so before 1947.
• The National Industrial Recovery Act established fair competition, a 40 hr. week, and the abolition of child labor under the age of 16.
• blacks received lower minimum wages, this had to be remedied!
• the Supreme Court ruled that the National Industrial Recovery Act was unconstitutional.
• The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) paid farmers to destroy cotton, wheat, and tobacco crops!
• the Southern Tenant Farmers Union was formed to fight against landowner sharecropping abuses
• blacks and whites voted together on AAA memorandums
• p. 434