Chapter 25, Half Century Of Change

• The Anti Drug Abuse Act of 1988 was passed
• William Bennett, the drug czar
• attacks against liberal intellectuals that advocated tolerance/legalization of drug use
• the Bush administration tried to make "black" scholarships a form of "reverse discrimination."
• AIDs, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, epidemic hit in 1981
• originally regarded as a gay/homosexual disease
• 1986, the National Black Gay and Lesbian Conference, address and devise solutions to the prejudice and problems faced by black gays and lesbians-racial and sexual minorities
• "Magic" Johnson was infected
• Arthur Ashe, a gifted professional tennis player, got AIDs from surgery
• VP. Quayle: "cultivate higher moral standards and practice abstinence."
• "Magic" resigned from the National Commission on AIDs, "lip service and photo opportunities."
• John Lewis of Georgia, came out for gay civil rights
• Rap reflected alienation
• Afrocentrism: dark skin > more creative, implicitly racist?, 
• Rodney King was beaten, the cops were found "not guilty" 
• $500 million worth of damage was caused by rioting
• New Jersey was racial profiling
• Jasper, TX: two whites dragged a black man to death for a mile
• Giuliani failed to condemn police brutality
• Major black sports figures: Michael Jordan, Sammy Sosa (MVP), Tiger Woods, major representative for Nike
• 1983, first black astronaut
• Clinton had a lot of black appointments in his cabinet
• McKinney of Georgia and Mel Watt of North Carolina, did not lose their seats
• the Black Caucus questioned Clinton's free trade policies
• Clinton took blacks off "welfare" and put them on "workfare"
• Lee Brown became the mayor of Houston, Texas
• Al Sharpton led protests against police brutality
• the Charlotte public schools were resegregated
• the suburban schools have internet, the urban schools don't have basketball nets!
• 30% more blacks graduated college in 1996 than in 1992
• anti-affirmative action cases were won at University of Texas and at University of Washington
• blacks were not attending 4-yr. public universities-either 2yr. colleges or historically black colleges
• blacks criticized Truman for appointing a secretary of state from racist South Carolina
• Why did the US fight in Vietnam, and then not bring equality for blacks?
• blacks were interested in self-government movement in West Africa
• the war funds could have been spent improving economic or civil rights at home
• MLK criticized Vietnam: Thou shall not kill!
• a greater percentage of blacks were drafted for Vietnam
• blacks created a sit-in at the South African embassy in Washington to protest the racial policies of the Republic of South Africa

Greater democracy in South Africa

• F.W. de Klerk became president of S. Africa
• Nelson Mandela was released, head of the black liberation movement
• didn't denounce human right's violations in Cuba
• Bush vowed to defend Saudia Arabia and its oil reserves
• 1991, Congress approved military force against Iraq
• 500,000 troops went to the Middle East
• 1957 to 1986, corrupt rule in Haiti
• the National Guard sent Haitians back to their home country
• California, New York, Florida, and Texas got many Spanish speaking immigrants
• politicians began tapping into racism, blacks vs. hispanics
• Bill Clinton created an advisory board of 2 blacks, one Asian, 1 Hispanic, and 3 European Americans to engage in a national dialogue
• Native Americans were furious they were not included on the board
• democratic Nigeria and Zaire collapsed
• US discussions with Uganda in the United Nations

Chapter 24, Reaction and Progress, p.564-601

• Carter had appointed blacks to important positions in government
• bad developments: unemployment increased. Energy, welfare, and taxes were not handled well.
• Reagan, extremely far right. Criticized "welfare queens" and big government
• Reagan, against affirmative action and equal employment opportunity programs
• Carter took 90% of the black vote
• head of housing and urban development, typically a black position
• William Bell, opposed by civil rights groups
• the US Commission on Civil Rights, Arthur Flemming would be replaced with Clarence Pendleton, a conservative black Republican
• Hart, against virtually every item of the civil rights agenda
• no blacks served as assistant secretary of state
• there HAD been respect for the US Commission on Civil Rights
• Reagan weakened the Legal Enforcement Assistance Administration, stopped enforcement of laws against housing administration and redress of grievances
• the Legal Defense Fund originally partneredw with the federal government to enforce civil rights legislation
• Reagan  wanted nonprofit status for private institutions that practiced racial discrimination
• fought food stamps, Medicaid, student loans, unemployment compensation, child nutrition assistance, and Aid to Families with Dependent Children
• high income groups got a lot of tax relief
• 94% of blacks disapproved of Reagan
• The Myth of Black Progress, a large black underclass developed
• Jackson fought for black opportunities
• Jackson ran for president but the NAACP wanted to vote for a white Democrat.
• Barry Commoner, an environmentalist and Gloria Steinem, a feminist supported Jackson
• great stimulus to black registration and voting
• Jackson was not "Pro-Israel" and had Palestinian sympathies
• 1988, Jackson debated Michael Dukakis, Gart Hart, Richard Gephardt, Al Gore Jr., and Bruce Babbitt
• Jackson received 24% of votes
• Dukakis received 43% of votes
• Vice President George Bush was a formidable candidate
• 90% of blacks voted for Dukakis
• the rich got richer and the poor got poorer
• Bush vetoed a minimum wage increase, Civil Rights Act, motor voter bill, longer unemployment benefits, family leave bill
• Reagan's Scalia and Kennedy, many civil rights gains were lost
• In Patterson v. McLean Credit Union, the Court reversed its 1976 ruling in holding that the Civil Rights Act of 1866 protected an employee in making a contract but did not extend protection to the employee once the contract was made
• Martin v. Wilks, white firefighters could sue Birmingham for making race conscious promotions
• blacks dreaded the retirement of Thurgood Marshall
• President Bush nominated Clarence Thomas, a black conservative. Erwin Griswold, the 87 year old dean of Harvard Law school called Thomas as the "best qualified," a "fantasy."
• Clarence Thomas, a graduate of Yale Law School was appointed by Reagan as assistant secretary for civil rights in the Department of Education

Against Thomas

• the American Federation of Labor
• American Federation of Teachers
• the National Bar Association
• the National Council of Jewish Women
• Gray Panthers
• the National Organization for Women
• People for the American Way
• National Lawyer's Guild
• the United States Student Association
• the NAACP Legal Defense and Education fund

"Uncle Justice Thomas" 

• Anita Hill, professor of law at the University of Oklahoma accused Thomas of sexual harassment

Major African American writers

• Ralph Ellison, Going To The Territory(1986)
• James Baldwin, Evidence of Things Not Seen(1986)
• Leon Forrest, There Is A Tree More Ancient Than Eden(1973), The Bloodworth Orphans(1977), Two Wings To Veil My Face(1983)
• Toni Morrison, The Bluest Eye, Song Of Soloman, Beloved
• Alex Haley, Roots
• Albert Murray, Trainwhistle Guitar(1974), The Spyglass Tree(1991), and the Seven League Boots(1996)
• Maya Angelou, I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings, The Heart Of A Woman 
• James A. McPherson, Hue and Cry
• Ernest Gaines, The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman
• John Edgar Wideman, racial identity in urban life
• Bebe Moore, Your Blues and Mine (1992), Brothers and Sisters(1994)
• Charles Johnson, Middle Passage (1990), Dreamer(1998),
• Walter Mosley, Devil In A Blue Dress
• 90's: Terry McMillan, E. Lynn Harris, homosexuality in the middle class black community

Major Poets

• Robert Hayden
• Nikki Giovanni
• Sam Allen
• Audre Lorde
• Lucile Clifton
• Michael Harper
• Yusef Komunyakaa
• Essex Hemphill
• Rita Dove, Thomas and Beulah(Pulitzer Prize)

New Artistic Institutions

• Amiri Baraka founded the Black Arts Repertory School in Harlem in 1964
• Playwright Douglas Turner Ward founded the Negro Ensemble Company, Day of Absence
• August Wilson, Fences, The Piano Lesson, and Two Trains Running
• August Wilson called to "save black theater institutions," was seen as separatist

Postwar Literary Trends

• Amiri Baraka, black art needed for Black Pride
• The Black Aesthetic, how the black writer should be judged
• mid-1960s: black women writers got popular
• Walker won the Pulitzer Prize for the Color Purple

African Americans In The Graphic Arts

• Hale Woodruff, Trial of the Amistad Mutineers
• Charles Alston, very versatile-portraits, caricatures, and pieces of sculpture.
• Elizabeth Catlett, leading printmaker and sculptor moved to Mexico. Created a black heroes piece, Malcolm Speaks For Us.
• Horace Pippin, exalt the lives of ordinary black folk
• David Driskll, artist and scholar
• Augusta Savage, Head of Dr. Dubois, sang "Lift Every Voice and Sing."
• Paul R. Williams, major architect

Major Composers:

William Grant Still, Ulysses Kay

• Andrew Watts, one of world's foremost pianists
• George Gershwin, Porgy and Bess(1985/1986)

Heard and Seen By Millions

• better jobs: industry, service sector, civil service, the professions
• patronized theaters, nightclubs, and cabarets.
• Jazz: Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Theolonius Monk, Max Roach, Art Tatum

Inventive: Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Cannonball Adderly, Charles Mingus, Herbie Handcock, Sonny Rollins, Jimmy Heath.

Composers: Quincy Jones and Mary Lou Williams

• Wynton Marsalis

Popular Music:

• James Brown, Muddy Waters, Smoky Robinson, Aretha Franklin, Patti LeBelle, the Shirelles, the Four Tops, the Supremes, The Temptations, and the Jackson Five. 

Movies

• crime, sex, and violence> black films.
• mid 1970s, black actors disappeared
• The Color Purple (1986), Spike Lee's She's Gotta Have It(1986) 
• Spike Lee, gave black independent film commercial viability
• Spike Lee produced Malcolm X
• Ghetto films: Boyz N The Hood, Straight Out Of Brooklyn, Menace II Society
• Marlon Rigg's, creative experimental works 
• the 90s were good for male actors: Denzel Washington, Forrest Whittaker, Samuel L. Jackson, Wesley Snipes, Laurence Fishburne, Morgan Freeman, Cuba Gooding Jr., Will Smith.
• Female actors: Whoopi Goldberg, Angela Bassett, Halle Berry.

Painful Films, not commercial sucesses

• Hoop Dreams, documentary-ghetto basketball players
• Amistad, slave-ship mutiny 
• Rosewood, destruction of a black town
• Beloved, indictment of slavery

• whites only wanted to watch black comedies
• blacks don't want to address painful realities of their history

Blacks on TV

• The Flip Wilson Show
• Bill Cosby starred in I SPY
• The Cosby Show and A Different World, student's experiences at a historically black college

• 1993, William Hilliar, editor of the Portland Oregonian, the only statewide daily in Oregon, was elected as the first black president of the American Society of Newspaper Editors
• more blacks could participate in sports after WWII
• Wilma Rudolph won three gold medals in track and field
• 1947, Jackie Robinson was signed by the Brooklyn Dodgers
• 1910 to 1915, Jack Johnson was the world heavyweight champion
• Muhammad Ali refused to be drafted into the US Army on religious grounds
• Ali was convicted of violating the Selective Service Act, he was barred from the ring and stripped of his crown
• the Supreme Court reversed this and he regained his championship title
• successful black athletes used the prestige and publicity to challenge remaining forms of discrimination in American sport and protest the inclusion of nations that espoused racial discrimination in the Olympics

The Black Revolution, p. 523 to 561

• Southerners imposed economic sanctions on blacks involved in civil rights
• Gov. Faubus, governor of Arkansas fought integration of Centra High School in Little Rock
• Muhammad Ali was a Black Muslim
• fair employment laws were passed in NY(1945), MI, MN, PA, CA, OH
• 4 students from the black Agricultural and Technical College in Greensboro, NC sat in at a counter until the store closed
• the Civil Rights Act of 1957 was passed
• Ella Baker, NAACP field organizer
• the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was created
• Hamer created the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
• 1M registered black voters in 12 Southern states
• Kennedy, well briefed by black-staff
• Robert Kennedy intervened in King's arrest
• Kennedy wanted to secure the right to vote for all blacks, increased employment of blacks in federal programs
• Thurgood Marshall, circuit court in New York
• Wade McCree to the district court for E. Michigan
• Spottswood Robinson to the bench in the District of Columbia
• discrimination in federal employment continued
• "freedom riders" were attacked by angry segregationists
• very little new desegregation of Southern schools occurred
• segregation was culturally entrenched in northern schools
• the state of Mississippi tried to deny James Meridith's enrollment
• Kennedy sent the National Guard to secure Meridith's admission and maintain order
• the Emancipation Centennial pointed out racial inequality in American life
• Birmingham, Alabama: Southern Christian Leadership Conference: demanded fair employment practices, desegregation of public facilities, a plan to desegregate, and the dropping of charges against Dr. King and 2,500 other activists.
• Birmingham police used dogs and high pressure water hoses on the marches
• Kennedy had to strengthen voting rights
• veteran labor leader A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin(civil rights leader and peace activist) produced a national demonstration
• the American Jewish Congress, the National Conference of Catholics for Interracial Justice, the National Council of Churches, and the AFL-CIO Industrial Union supported the march
• 200,000 blacks and whites attended, the largest demonstration in the history of the nation's capital
• a black church was bombed in Birmingham in September. 4 children died.
• many Southerners ran on pro-segregation platforms
• 11/22/1963, Kennedy was killed in Dallas
• Edwards v. South Carolina, upheld the right to demonstrate
• Johnson v. Virginia, refused to sit in a section of a courtroom reserved for blacks

The Illusion Of Equality

• Lyndon B. Johnson became the 36th president of the US
• 24th amendment, outlawed poll-taxes
• the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the most far-reaching and comprehensive law in support of racial equality ever enacted by Congress
• EEOC, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
• many public places became private clubs
• 1964, an off-duty policeman killed  a black youth
• 24 black churches were destroyed
• blacks faced much discrimination in housing. High rents for slums, the city would not enforce building codes, etc.
• Thurgood Marshall, 1st black admitted to the U.S. Supreme Court
• the economic disparities between blacks and whites increased among blue collar workers and low income groups
• Los Angeles: poor employment opportunities, poor housing
• Stokely Carmichael, blacks must think in terms of "black power" to combat "white power"
• neighborhood schools were defended
• Berkeley, CA, full racial desegregation
• white parents fled to the suburbs or put their children in private schools

Cynicism Was Breeding

• sit-ins, freedom riders, marches, demonstrations, voter-registration drives
• justice and equality were not to be extended to blacks under any circumstances
• 1. assassination of JFK
• 2. the murder of Malcolm X
• 3. the murder of civil rights workers
• 4. the murder of children
• 5. no one was convicted for these crimes
• 6. Martin Luther King was killed
• 7. the capture of James Earl Ray

Other groups

• militant, action oriented blacks
• the Black Power Conference, two independent nations-one for blacks, one for whites
• the Black Panther Party for Self Defense

The Black Panthers

• Huey P. Netwton led a group of gun-carrying demonstrators into the California state legislature
• he was convicted on a charge of manslaughter of the death of an Oakland policeman
• FBI- Black Panthers were "dangerous and subversive."
• two separate societies- separate and unequal

Other tactics

• demanded churches give 60% of their assets to rehab black economic, social, and cultural life
• gave up the term "Negro"
• insisted on black history classes
• black feminism took off in 1972
• 20% of all Democrat votes
• created the National Black Political Convention
• PUSH, People United To Save Humanity, Rev. Jesse Jackson

Black Dissatisfaction

25% hated jobs, 44% hated community life

Major Groups

• The NAACP
• The US Commission On Civil Rights
• the Civil Rights Division of the Department of Justice

• 1976, 48.7% voted
• The Voter Education Project did not have enough $ to mount a successful campaign
• apathy was very great among young blacks
• 1978, Louis Martin, special assistant to  the president
• Carter cared more about the budget than helping the disadvantaged
• "The Declining Significance of Race" was published by University of Chicago
• poor blacks were falling behind rich blacks

Chapter 22 From Slavery To Freedom, p. 506 to 521

• new position of African Americans
• increased initiative to achieve equality for blacks
• civic, lsbor and religious groups pushed for equality
• "Freedom To Serve" under Truman, all qualified blacks could serve in the army
• abolished racial quotas
• the inclusion of blacks was an overall gain for the army
• Truman-executive order requiring fair employment in the federal services
• opportunities for blacks to receive adequate housing increased
• the CIO, union. A. Philip Randolph and Willard Townsend were elected cie presidents
• the American Friends Service Committee and the American Missionary Association gave specific attention to the problem of race tensions in communities, set up programs to improve intergroup relations, and published reports and studies involving race
• 1947, larger hotels in Washington began to accept black guests
• when DC was desegregated, whites fled to the suburbs of Virginia and Maryland
• railways/airports stopped segregation
• blacks in Georgia cast their votes in the 1946 Democratic primary
• Eisenhower upheld army segregation
• William Hastie, became a judge on the Third US Circuit Court of Appeals
• Dr. King was indicted under a 1921 antiunion law forbidding conspiracy to obstruct the operation of a business
• business decreased by 75%
• White Citizen's Councils fought against desegregation
• "declaration of Constitutional principles": desegregation undercut state's rights
• a reign of terror in the South: white on black violence
• blacks who urged others to vote were murdered in Mississippi
• Nat King Cole was attacked by whites on-stage

Urbanization and its consequences, p. 515

• 52 percent of blacks were living in urban areas
• 1980, 81% of blacks were in urban areas
• whites left cities and took employment opportunities with them
• blacks got by on part-time work, unemployment benefits, and welfare.
• factories and shops of a central city moved to suburbs
• blacks were attacked when they moved into white neighborhoods

Problems

• employment failed to materialize
• unemployment or underemployment-fate
• men were less likely to find work
• thievery, drunkenness, and street brawls resulted
• the extended family was no longer involved

Obstacles:

• the slave system
• legal segregation
• discrimination
• poverty
• racially hostile policies of government and society

• until the 1960s, 75% of black families had a husband and a wife
• the black churh was more stable
• provide social and religious communion
• churches became involved in secular activities: day-care, couple's clubs, social services.
• black clergy got politically active and ran for office themselves
• black newspaper publishing expanded
• black financial institutions expanded
• black insurance companies were pretty stable
• talented blacks felt they could not reach executive or policy making positions

Chapter 21, Fighting For The Four Freedoms, p. 476-504

-the League of Nations sought to check aggression
-powerful nations used it to impose their will on weaker members
-Japan seized Manchuria in 1931
-1922, Mussolini came to power. Wanted to seize Ethiopia.
-the International Council of Friends of Ethiopia was organized with Willis Huggins as executive secretary.
-blacks condemned the fascism
-Hitler refused to treat black Olympic stars with civility in Berlin
-Hitler invaded Poland in September 1939
-Germany conquered Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium.
-America did not want to support a large, standing peacetime army.
-very few blacks were allowed into the military forces.
-A. Philip Randolph and Walter White submitted a 7-point program to give blacks just consideration in thed defense program to President Roosevelt
-Americans hated Hitler but promoted racism
-William Hastie, civilian aide to the secretary of war
-the National Defense Advisory Committee: discrimination at hiring plants was not allowed
-the President spoke against discrimination
-A. Philip Randolph, head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and Maids wanted 50,000 to 100,000 blacks to match on Washington to demand that blacks be given defense industry jobs.
-Executive order 8802, prohibited discrimination in employment in defense industries
-a Fair Employment Practives Committee (FEPC) was established
-white employers and Southern whites opposed the FEPC
-Under the Selective Service Act of 1940, more than 3M blacks registered for service in the armed forces
-more impartial than WWI drafts
-blacks were admitted to the Women's Army Corps (WAC)
-blacks would be received into the Marine Corp
-black officers faced much discrimination in advancing.
-4x as many black soldiers were court marshalled
-Capt. Charles Thomas received the Distinguished Service Cross for heroism
-1945, blacks would be integrated into a white unit on German soil.
-The 99th Pursuit Squadron + the 332nd Fighter Group: major black air combat units
-93rd division, steady fighting in the Orient
-black work in the navy was well praised
-Negro Marines are Marines period.
-black soldiers demanded more equality when possible
-the military confiscated black newspapers
-the War Department forbid discrimination in recreational/transportational facilities
-blacks bought many war bonds
-blacks helped out in the Office of Price Administration(OPA)
-many blacks moved North or West.
-San Francisco, Oakland, Portland, and Seattle experienced much growth.
-06/20/1943: major race riot in Detroit, 6,000 soldiers had to patrol the city
-the Pittsburgh Courier waged a vigorous "Double-V" campaign, victory at home as well as abroad.
-the Office of War Information (OWI) described how blacks were faring in the armed services.
-Walter White of the NAACP published A Rising Wind, based on visits to the war fronts
-a conference in San Francisco was held to describe peace.
-UN Charter preamble, faith in the dignity and worth of all humans
-UNESCO as developed to create a program of fundamental education
-the UN discussions on race were much more mature than Wilson's discussions at Versailles
-Ralph Bunche, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1950 for mediating in the Palestine dispute.
-America had to improve its racial policies to "fight the Communist bloc."

Chapter 20, The American Dilemma

-blacks made their most significant improvements in education in the second half of the 20th Century
-1977: 9.3% of college students are black

-1945, black colleges had white presidents
-Increase in black leadership. By1965, black colleges had black presidents
-1970 Clifton Wharton became the first black president of a white college, Michigan State
-1978, Wharton became a chancellor of the State University of New York system

-1970s: The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare required that institutions have affirmative action hiring programs
-the number of black professors with tenure remained small
-graduate and professional training of blacks increased as a larger number of them sough such opportunities

Court Battles
-1935, Donald Murray was successful in gaining admission to the law school of the University of Maryland.
-1938: Chief Justice Hughes said that it was the duty of the state to provide education for all of its citizens and that provision must be made within the state.
-Maryland and West Virginia made it possible for blacks to attend historically white institutions
-1946, Ada Sipuel fought for admission to the University of Oklahoma law school
-Oklahoma decided to establish a separate law school
-finally gained admission to the university law school in 1949
-G. W. McLaurin went there but the university officials segregated him in the classroom, library, and cafeteria.
-Herman Sweatt was admitted to the University of Texas law school

Southern Fear
-the South did not want Plessy v. Ferguson overturned
-Southerners did not want to open all public institutions of higher education to African Americans
-1951, the University of Louisville employed one black professor
-The NAACP fought segregation as unconstitutional and as a clear contrevention of the “Judeo Christian tradition”
-1954, Brown v. Board of Education, banned segregated public schools because separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.
-the South lagged behind the rest of the nation in extending the use of its resources and facilities to blacks
-By 1935: 83/565 public libraries were open to blacks

Major Black Scholars
-George E. Haynes
-Charles S. Johnson
-E. Franklin Frazier

Humanities Scholars:
-Alain Locke,
-J. Saunders Redding
-Sterling Brown
-Ulysses Lee

Scientific:
-George Washington Carver
-Elmer S. Imes
-Ernest E. Just
-Julian Lewis
-William A. Hinton
-Percy Julian
-Charles Drew
-Daniel Hale Williams

-1916, the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History published the Journal of Negro History
-Carter Woodson, edited the journal
-1931, The Journal of Negro Education, edited by Charles Thompson

Opportunities For Self-Expression

-the richness of the Harlem Renaissance was both a stimulant and an inspiration for the wealth of talent displayed in later years
-Jazz no longer belonged to Harlem, it flourished in New Orleans and Memphis

Major Players
Fletcher Henderson, Jimmie Lunceford, Duke Ellington, Cab Calloway, Count Basie, Louis Armstrong, Lionel Hampton, Teddy Wilson, Earl “Fatha” Hines, Mary Lou Williams
New York, Chicago, Las Angeles clubs employed black orchestras, singers, and dancers
Classical: William Grant Still composed Africa, Afro-American Symphony, and Symphony in G Minor: Song of a New Race
steady increase in widely acclaimed black singers (p. 458)
Paul Robeson and Roland Hayes, Edward Matthews, Aubrey Pankey, Kenneth Spencer, William Warfield
the Daughters of the American Revolution refused to permit Marian Anderson to use Constitution Hall in Washington

White Writer’s Incorporation of black themes
-Paul Green and a number of his colleagues at the University of North Carolina continued to employ black themes and materials in their works
“Dark Symphony,” a poem, was published in the Atlantic Monthly

Arna Bontremps
-1931, God sends Sunday
-1936, Black Thunder
-1939, Drums at Dusk
-1945, They Seek A City
-1966, Anyplace But Here

William Attaway
-1939, Let Me Breathe Thunder

1940s Writing
-Richard Wright wrote Uncle Tom’s Children
-1940, Native Son was published
-1945, Black Boy
-1953, The Outsider

Ralph Ellison
-Invisible Man, National Book Award (1952)
-1964, Shadow and Act

Blacks emergence as actors
-Paul Robeson starred as Orthello
-Hilda Simms in Anna Lucasta
-Gordon Heth, in Deep Are the Roots
-Canada Lee, in On Whitman Avenue
-Hallelujah, 1st all black film

The World Of African Americans
-Negro ghettos continued
-poor housing, unemployment, inadequate recreational facilities, and similar conditions contributed to delinquency among children and separation among parents
-a substantial middle class emerged

Black Muslims
-the Nation of Islam, the Black Muslims were concerned with black alienation
-sought complete separation from the white community
-Malcolm X was a prominent Black Muslim
-he was assassinated early in 1965
-Muhammad Speaks, organizational newspaper

Church Life
-blacks turned to the church for self-expression, recognition and leadership.
“the place of refuge” to the black community

Black Press: A Forum For Politics, Education, and Exposure:
-Frederick Douglass, the North Star, fought slavery
-Fortune’s New York Age, fought the relegation of black Americans to second-class citizenry
-In the 20th century: black newspapers fought for the underpriviledged
move to industrial centers for work
urged support of war
fought for complete integration

-the number of black newspapers increased steadily

p.468
-white newspapers did not present opinions the black community appreciated
-$35 million worth of investment in black newspapers, 10,000 writers
-after WWI, the black professional class grew
-fraternities and sororities, served as the nucleus for civic and recreational facilities
-motion pictures, popular source of entertainment for blacks
-the National Negro Congress (1936), contained 500 black organizations
-1946, fought a Virginia bus company that promoted segregation
-Washington introduced Negro Health Week, to promote good health among the black community
-blacks did not want to live in a separate world from whites
-blacks did not want to be guinea pigs for psychological experiments
-North Carolina and Fisk University undertook to present graphic and scientific pictures of the status of blacks in American society
-most black youth did not have equal opportunities
-the environment of black youth often influenced them to act in shiftless, irresponsible, and aggressive ways
-Gunnar Myrdal of the University of Stockholm-most ambitious study of blacks
-Commission of Interracial Cooperation, fought for equal opportunities for blacks
-Southern Conference for Human Welfare (1938), liberal group to improve the conditions of blacks
-1950s/1960s: psychologists demonstrated that prejudice among children only reflects the attitudes of their parents
-Headstart was developed
-SEEK at the University of New York: Critics thought it would increase the amount of unqualified students for City University.
-the importance of the problem was dramatized.

Chapter 19, The New Deal, p. 419-434

• the number of black wage earners increased after WWI
• unions such as the AFL and railway brotherhoods (Mostly) excluded blacks
• Friends Of Negro Freedom was created in 1920: helped unionize black migrants, protect black tenants, advance black cooperation, and organize forums to educate the masses.
• the National Association for the Promotion of Labor Unionism among Negroes
• Chandler Owen, A Philip Randolph published The Messenger

• an advisory board of white labor radicals and intellectuals was organized: Morris Hillquit, Joseph D. Cannon, Charles Ervin
• The American Negro Labor Congress met for the first time in Chicago in 1925
• looked to unionize blacks
• Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and Maids, was organized by A. Philip Randolph in 1925
• the Pullman Company attacked the brotherhood as a dangerous radical organization
• the AFL, NAACP, and National Urban League endorsed the Sleeping Car Porters
• boll weeevil destroyed Southern crops
• tobacco, cotton, and sucarcane were on the international market which was tough on farmers
• urban land values and the stock market increased
• agriculture, shipbuilding, coal-mining, textile/shoe industries were not enjoying the "Roaring Twenties."
• 1934: 17% of whites and 38% blacks were incapable of self support economically
• 1933: 25% to 40% of blacks were on relief, 3x or 4x as much as whites
• 1935 (Atlanta) 65% of black employables needed public assistance
• large differentials existed between black and white aid($6 more which was considerable)
• black concentration in cities began to give them more political power
• 1917, blacks sent Edward Johnson to the New York assembly
• blacks regarded many black political appointments as tokenism
• John Davis(D) said "he would make no distinctions based on race or creed." and the Progressive Robert FaFollette made a similar statement, blacks began to desert the Republican party
• Republicans were willing to alienate blacks to gain territory in the South.
• Oscar DePriest was elected to Congress in 1928. However, blacks were very disappointd with Herbert Hoover.
• Jessie DePriest attended a tea at the White House which offended many Southerners
• blacks began using their votes to register protests. They studied the voting records of Congress (Votesmart.org) and watched the utterances and policies of presidents in order to ferret out thoe whom they considered their enemies.

• they fought the Senator who killed the anti-lynching bill
• opposed John Parker to the Supreme Court, fought Senators who approved his confirmation.
• blacks began to regard President Hoover as their enemy
• some New York blacks supported Hoover but they did not want Southern Democrats to come to power
• some blacks voted Communist
• Angelo Herndon, prominent Communist from Birmingham who worked as a coal miner. Faced privation, discrimination, and disillusionment he joined the Communist Party.
• He was sentenced to 18 years in prison on charge of inciting an insurrection, a 5 year court battle settled his freedom.
• the International Labor Defense (ILD) secured Angelo's freedom.
• the Scottsboro boys got 99 year sentences.
• 1950, the last of the Scottsboro boys were released.
• In the 1930s the Communists made an effort to join with Middle Class organizations to fight fascism, A. Philip Randolph was not able to attract much support.
• Eleanor Roosevelt was friends with Mary McLeod Bethune, she was photographed at Howard University. Egalitarianism lives!
• 1940, some opposition to Roosevelt had developed among blacks
  
• 1960s, the amount of black judges had doubled
• Roosevelt's "Black Cabinet" contributed but was turned away from speaking with the president
• they were highly intelligent and highly trained individuals
• task: to press for economic and political equality for blacks, increase employment opportunities for blacks in government and labor,
  
• 50,00 blacks performed gov. service in 1933, 200,000 did so before 1947.
• The National Industrial Recovery Act established fair competition, a 40 hr. week, and the abolition of child labor under the age of 16.
• blacks received lower minimum wages, this had to be remedied!
• the Supreme Court ruled that the National Industrial Recovery Act was unconstitutional.
• The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) paid farmers to destroy cotton, wheat, and tobacco crops!
• the Southern Tenant Farmers Union was formed to fight against landowner sharecropping abuses
• blacks and whites voted together on AAA memorandums
• p. 434
  

Mary McLeod and the National Youth Administration, p. 191-214

• rose from poverty to become one of the nation's most distinguished African American leader
• 3 careers: 1) educator, 2) architect of Florida's Bethune Cookman College, 3) headed the National Council Of Negro Women
• part of the black cabinet for Franklin Delano Roosevelt
• part of the New Deal agency
• Other important advisors: 1) Frank Thune-Housing Specialist, 2) William Hastie-Assistant to the Secretary of war, 3) Robert Weaver- advised on housing and labor, became head of Housing and Urban Development later.
• Weaver-most durable, Hastie resigned because of the military's discrimination, 
• New Deal, first time since Reconstruction that black equality was promoted
• the Fair Employment Practices Act was passed
• the National Youth Administration: Wanted equal black participation
• New Deal, Second Reconstruction
• Roosevelt would not support anti-lynching legislation
• New Deal legislation encouraged racial separation
• Bethune did not demand a de-segregated society
• McLeod wanted more blacks to be appointed to state posts
• her organization prepared blacks for high skill, high wage labor
• her approach did not offend Southern whites
• She believed the NYA should overturn Southern administration decisions
• Bethune put forth a subdued approach consciously
• Sadler and Bethune were the most powerful members of the bureaucracy
• Sadler was more bold, Bethune was more secretive
• Sadler questioned the Roosevelt's position on desegregation
• Bethune was more pragmatic, believed Negroes must receive separate but equal consideration
• Southern teacher's salaries for black and white schools should be the same, Southerners would have to integrate
• failure: did not apply federal standards of equality to the state level often enough
• Southerners would not allow blacks to head integrated work projects
• black funding of local advisory boards gave blacks power in the selection of board members
• black economic, political, and population size had strengthened by the time of the New Deal
• black salaries for directors were low
• Bethune approved discriminatory salaries for black state directors,
• black interests could not be represented by white administrators
• state and local officials were not corresponding on a regular basis
• Bethune, director that cared about black's opportunities

Chapter 17, Democracy Escapes, p. 383-399

• After WWI, there were endless parades of troops, black and white
• the black 369th had a million people witness their march
• the time of jubilation was short lived
• industry wanted to begin the task of filling the huge backlog of orders for goods that had not been produced during the war
• black leaders wanted to move forward to a new basis for democratic living in the United States
• sickness: 1) lynching, 2) disenfranchisement, 3) theft, 4) insult, 5) encourages ignorance
• The KKK was revived in the South as early as 1915
• against Negroes, Japanese, Orientals, Roman Catholics, Jews, foreign born individuals
• 200 public appearances in 27 states
• flourished in New York, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Midwestern states
• lawlessness and violenc characterized the postwar period in the USA
• According to the Klan, "America was a white man's country."
• the Klan forced blacks to pick cotton in Texas at low wages
• the Klan was active in the West against the Japanese population
• James Weldon Johnson called the summer of 1919, the Red Summer, the greatest period of interracial strife the nation had ever witnessed
• jobs were not as plentiful, competition strained relations between whites and blacks.
• Northern, Southern, Eastern, Western riots ensued
• July 1919, Longview Texas, white men were shot when entering a black section of town.

Serious outbreak

• Many Southern blacks had migrated to Chicago
• 109,000 blacks lived there
• blacks were spreading into white neighborhoods, whites bombed black homes.
• 13 days of no law and order in Chicago
• Knoxville, TN riot: white woman ran from a black man and fell and hurt herself.
• Omaha:a mob almost completely destroyed the country courthouse by fire in order to secure a black man who was in jail on a charge of attacking a white girl.
• a reign of terror began
• Tulsa, Oklahoma fighting
• Rosewood, Florida was completely annihilated in January, 1923 by a white mob
• 1925, a mob tried to prevent black O.H. Sweet, a doctor from living in a house he purchased in a white neighborhood
• the NAACP defended him- Clarence Darrow and Arthur Garfield Hays served as defense attorney
• whites tried to call blacks who demanded equality Bolshevists
• African Americans loudly protested practices they regarded as unjust and oppressive
• intelligent planning and action were needed
• NAACP, crusade against lynching. 
• Rep. L. C. Dyer of Missouri introduced a bill to punish the crime of lynching
• It passed the Congress 230 to 119.
• Republicans voted to abandon it.
• Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States, 1889 to 1918. 
• Rope and Faggot, A Biography of Judge Lynch. 
• Texas excluded blacks from Democratic primaries
• Smith v. Allright, the Supreme Court decided the exclusion of blacks from the Democratic Party was a violation of the 15th Amendment.
• The Commission on Interracial Cooperation promoted interracial communities.
• NAACP and THOIC were regarded as organizations for upper class blacks and liberal whites
• Marcus Garvey created the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)
• black stood for strength and beauty
• Africa had a noble past
• blacks should be proud of their heritage
• separatist, back-to-Africa movement
• accused the NAACP of making blacks white by amalgamation, being black is nothing to be ashamed of. 
• sent to prison after collecting $10 million, for 5 years
• President Coolidge pardoned Garvey and ordered his deportation as an undesirable alien.
• most blacks were content to remain in the United States and strive to improve conditions through the regular channels open to all citizens or through special agencies like the NAACP
• George Baker led a cultic like movement which held elaborate feasts

p. 362-381 in From Freedom To Slavery: A History of African Americas

• blacks were barred from the army, the NAACP advocated separate camps for blacks and whites, then the blacks would have a chance @ promotion.
• Booker T. Washington's secretary Emmett Scott was selected as an advisor for race relations by Newton D. Baker, secretary of war.
• Miller of Howard University was pleased about Emmett's appointment
• blacks were barred from the marines and could only do menial jobs in the navy.
• Committee On The Welfare of Negro Troops was founded
• blacks were barred from theaters, General Ballou filed legal charges against the theater.
• the Fifteenth Regiment that was discriminated against was sent overseas
• black troops arrived in France in June, 1917.
• blacks worked 24 hour shifts and did in 9.5 hrs what would take days
• The Red Hand Division, blacks fought in Germany
• The 350th Artillery Band visited black troops
• the US government refused to send black nurses even though there was a shortage of nurses overseas
• Secret Information Concerning Black Troops, Americans told the French that all blacks were rapists
• the French were very kind to blacks
• Robert Moton, Washington's successor at Tuskegee University
• Moton visited France. 2 rapes in 1,200 men.
• peace conference @ Versailles: England, France, Belgium, and the Union of South Africa were independent of German control
• Du Bois called for a Pan-African Congress to meet in Paris, held in the Grand Hotel in February 1919. Blacks cared about democratic treatment!
• blacks purchased $250 million worth of war bonds and stamps
• The North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company purchased $300,000 worth of war bonds.
• Hoover appointed Ernest Atwell, Tuskeegee as a field worker for Alabama
• Hundreds of thousands of blacks left the South during WWI
• the labor depression in the South sent wages down 75 cents a day
• the damage of the boll weevil to cotton crops in 1915 and 1916 discouraged many who were dependent on cotton
• floods in the summer of 1915 left many blacks homeless and destitute
• labor shortage in the North was attractive to blacks

Reasons

1. injustice in Southern courts

2. lack of privileges

3. disenfranchisement

4. segregation

5. lynching

• 1918, 1 million blacks had left the South
• a Division of Negro Economics was created by The Department of Labor
• Edmund Haynes led the division of Negro Economics

Goals:

1. to improve conditions of black workers

2. to secure full cooperation with white workers and employers for maximum production

The National Urban League

• active in the adjustment of African Americans who had recently moved into the industrial centers of the North. 
• conference on migration in New York
• African Americans were suspicious of organized labor

The Associated Colored Employees Of America

• 1917, the AFL believed ALL workers should unite
• Moton of Tuskegee, Emmett Scott of the War Department, Eugene Kinkle Jones of the National Urban League, and Fred Moore of the New York Age met.
• African Americans produced ammunition, iron, steel, packed meat, automobiles, trucks, electrical products.
• Charles Knight, Bethlehem Steel broke the world's record for building steel ships.
• 38 lynchings in 1917 (lynching parties!)
• 40 blacks killed in St. Louis, Illinois
• Emmett Scott denounced mob violence but supported the war
• Ralph Tyler was a war correspondant

End of Chapter 15, Beginning of Ch. 16. P.354 through 362

• The NAACP addressed civil rights concerns but economic empowerment organizations were needed
• Committe For Improving The Industrial Conditions of Negroes, New York > The National Urban League
• the National League Of Colored Women
• Haynes, black graduate student at Columbia University made an extensive study of social and economic conditions among African Americans in New York City, The Negro At Work In New York City
• Haynes went to Fisk University to develop a department of Sociology and to train social workers
• Haynes and Kinckle Jones headed the National Urban League
• Booker T. Washington supported the National Urban League
• assisted newly arrived blacks in their adjustment to city life
• brought employers and employees together
• created program for Social workers and grants to support them economically
• 1906, YWCA's for blacks in Washington, Philadelphia, New York, and Baltimore

efforts to solve local problems: 

• Flanner Settlement House in Indianapolis
• the Model Homes company in Cincinnati
• the NAACP and the National Urban League strived to solve problems broadly

Chapter 16: In Pursuit Of Democracy (p. 357)

World War I:

• unmistakable signs of war were gathering
• Germany and its satellites were more determined than ever to wield a controlling influence in Europe, Africa, and Asia
• when the war came, the American people were wholly unprepared 
• Wilson promised a "New Freedom"
• African Americans were suspicious of Theodore Roosevelt because of his handling of the Brownsville incident
• African Americans did not have any confidence in President Taft
• the NAACP wanted the Progressive Republican party to repeal discriminatory laws and wanted complete enfranchisement for blacks.
• Roosevelt allowed the Southern white delegates to ignore these demands, Bull Moose movement offered little to blacks. 
• Wilson's rhetoric demanded justice for blacks
• blacks were not concerned about tariff or banking reforms
• The Congress of Wilson had proposed many pro-discrimination bills
• proposed: segregated public carriers, exclusion of blacks from the military and the navy, separate accomodations for black and white employees, and the exclusion of all immigrants of African descent. 
• most of the legislation failed to pass(good!), Wilson segregated federal employees and prevented blacks from entering civil service
• Trotter led a group to protest segregation, Wilson dismissed it.
• US invaded Haiti, blacks protested the affront on Haiti's sovereignty
• The Birth of a Nation by antiblack Thomas Dixon was produced, promoted the myth of black emancipation, enfranchisement and debauchery of white womanhood.
• lynchings and other forms of violence increased
• In 1916, Jesse Washington was publicly burned in Waco, Texas before a cheering mob
• Well-to-do Anthony Crawford was mobbed and killed for "imprudence" in refusing to agree to a price for his cottonseed
• 1915: Booker T. Washington died
• Conference in Joel Spingarn's home in Amenia, New York to discuss the plight of african Americans
• 1. abolition of lynching
• 2. enfranchisment
• 3. civil rights laws
• African Americans enlist to fight in World War I
• 20,000 men of 750,000 were black in the armed forces
• for the most part blacks were barred from service
• Col. Charles  Young was forced to retire because of his high blood pressure. He rode to Washington on horseback to prove his fitness but the board denied him. 
• p. 362 begin

Chapter 15 The Color Line through p. 354

• African American troops served as occupation troops in the Spanish/American War
• America sent marines to Santo Domingo (occupy 1916 to 1924)
• The United States had control over Haiti's finances
• 2,ooo protesting Haitians were gunned down
• US takes control of Liberia
• blacks helped America's imperial ambitions: black ambassadors to Haiti
• Frederick Douglass became the American minister in 1897
• Americans did try to improve health, education, and well-being of conquered inhabitants
• military domination of sovereign areas under the United States

Urban problems

• Industrialization was supposed to bring prosperity to everyone
• business combinations grew to unmanagable proportions
• businesses often exploited people
• the Sherman Antitrust Act was created to combat monopolies
• Theodore Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to the White House
• Southern whites were furious about Washington's visit to the White House
• William Crum, black American was appointed to head a port in Charleston, SC.
• McKinley appointed twice as many blacks
• Roosevelt's words were "full of hope for the Negro and deadly miasma for the Southern whites"
• Minnie Cox, black head of a post office in Indianola, Mississippi. Resigned under white pressure, post office would not accept her resignation.
• blacks continued to move into urban areas
• few Unions would accept blacks. The Cigarmaker's International Union and the United Mine Workers of America seemed to welcome African Americans into membership
• many black women became domestic servants
• many industrialists claimed that blacks were inefficient
• whites segregated blacks to one section of the city
• municipalities enacted segregation ordainances
• problems: juveline delinquincy, public parks/playgrounds were not open to blacks
• the Progressive movement was for "whites only"
• muckrakers attacked slum conditions, monopolies, corruption in city government, dishonesty in the U.S. Senate, the evil railroad operators, and other wretched conditions.
• Following The Color Line, Stannard Baker
• Baker: time, patience, and education were required, not legislation.
• violent manifestations of hostility toward blacks in the North and in the South were not new
• 2500 lynchings at the end of the 1800s
• Wilmington, North Carolia riot, near end of the reign of terror?
• industrial imperialism leads to oppression
• blacks were kept as wage slaves
• The South and the Midwest had the most lynchings
• blacks were accused of raping white women and were lynched
• one black was whipped for riding a bicycle on a sidewalk.
• Marie Thompson, black woman killed a white man to save herself. The mob attempted to hang her but she cut herself loose. They then shot her.
• Riot in Atlanta, sensational riot!
• nothing was done to the rioters
• Roosevelt did little in reaction to the riot in Brownsville, Texas
• a major lynching occured just a half a mile from Abe Lincoln's home
• W.E. B. Dubois led the Niagara Conference. The group drew up a platform for aggressive action. They demanded freedom of speech and criticism, male suffrage, the abolition of all distinctions based on race, the recognition of basic principle of human fellowship, and respect for the working person.
• The Niagara Movement met in Boston in 1907
• The New England Suffrage League and the Equal Rights League of Georgia supported the work of the Niagara Movement
• Walling, white writer, shocked by Springfield race riots, wrote in the Independent. 
• educators, professors, publicists, bishops, judges, and social workers came together to form the NAACP
• 1. abolition of all forced segregation
• 2. equal education for black and white children
• 3. The enforcement of the 14th and 15th amendments
• the NAACP was denounced by white philanthropists and some blacks thought it unwise
• a. widen industrial opportunities for blacks
• b. greater police protection for blacks in the South
• c. a crusade against lynching and unlawfulness
• Crisis, NAACP publication
• created the Legal Redress Committee
• Arthur Spingarn was the chairman of the legal committee
• 1915: Guinn v. United States, the Supreme Court overturned grandfather clauses in Maryland and Oklahoma
• 1917: Buchanan v. Warley, overturned Louisville ordinance to segregate living spaces
• resorting to the courts became an effective weapon in the fight for full citizenship
• 1921, 400 branches of the NAACP nationwide
• Dubois said that Washington was incorrect, blacks needed to be able to exercise more civil liberties
• Committee For Improving The Industrial Conditions Of Negroes, the National League For The Protection Of Colored Women. p. 354

p. 305-309, Chapter 14 Part Two

• Washington accepted uncritically the dominant philosophy of American business when he insisted that everyone had his/or her future in his own hands, the doctrine of triumphant capitalism
• The Negro Business League was organized in 1900 to foster business and industry. It was based on the philosophy that if one could make a better article and sell it cheaper, one could command the markets of the world
• tact, good manners, and resolute will, tireless capacity for hard work would lead to success in business
• the theories of free competition and political individualism advocated free markets
• production was centered so all capital drifted to the top
• many skilled artisan jobs were eliminated by the industrial revolution!
• the industrial urban community was atractive to blacks
• cities offered many advantages for cultural and intellectual growth
• Washington was unquestionably the central figure, the dominant personality in the history of African Americans
• the vast majority of blacks accalimed him as their leader, amd few whites ventured into the matter of race relations without his counsel
• 75 percent of blacks in USA were in the Confederate states in 1880
• South Carolina farm workers were making 1/2 as much as New York factory laborers
• whites did not want to sell land to blacks
• farm demonstration agents helped black farmers to improve their condition
• exodus of blacks from the South in 1880
• minor stampede to Kansas- Henry Adams and Pap Singleton
• Adams claimed to have organized 98,000 blacks to go West
• some blacks considered going to Africa
• vagrancy laws and labor contract laws kept many blacks from leaving the South
• Greener, professor advocated that blacks migrate to escape their oppression in the South
• an exodus would give blacks better economic and educational opportunities and would improve conditions for those still in the South
• 1880s, industrial production took off in the South
• the iron industry was growing in Tennesee and Alabama
• blacks in the South could not get new industrial opportunities
• 1910, many unattractive industrial jobs open up for blacks

Chapter 14 Philanthropy and Self Help

p. 293-325

end of Reconstruction brought little improvement in the economic and social status of blacks

• political gains disappeared
• question one: improved status only in education
• southerners objected to black schools
• southerners tolerated black schools more than other kinds of black institutions
• philanthropy supported educational institutions
• Freedmen's Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal church had broadened its scope
• Episcopalian, Presbyterian, and Cathiolic-major black denominations
• wealthy Americans subsidized black learning in the South
• 260 new institutions of higher learning!
• Vanderbilt(1873)
• Johns Hopkins (1876)
• Leland Stanford (1885)
• University of Chicago (1892)
• educational foundations were founded: the Peabody education fund
• the John F. Slater Fund, the General Education Board, the Anna Jeanes Fund, the Julius Rosenwald Fund, and the Phelps-Stokes Fund.
• religious groups gave a lot more than secular foundations
• George Peabody, amassed a fortune as a merchant and financier in England and America, created an education fund for public schools in the South
• John Slater, textile industrialist from Norwich, Connecticut funded teacher training
• John Rockefeller gave a lot to Baptist schools and funded the University of Chicago
• Anna Jeanes, gave 200,000 to General Education Board to improve black rural schools
• Julius Rosenwald sat on the board of the Tuskegee Institute
• agencies wished to promote self-help for the individual
• Dexter Hawkins, New York lawyer argued the South should be educated to bring a larger tax base to the nation
• large foundations: Robert Ogden, H. H. Roers, Collis Huntington, Andrew Carnegie, William H. Baldwin, Jr., and George Foster Peabody
• public education was greatly improved
• money for white children was $6:2.27, $22.25:2, dramatically more funding for whites
• Jubilee Singers of Fisk University brought money to their institution through concert performances in the North
• 1900: 28,00 black teachers, 1.5 million black students
• black state schools: Virginia, Arkansas, Georgia, Delaware
• many whites believed blacks should receive a limited education
• Booker T. Washington attended Hampton Institute and received a practical education from Samuel Chapman Armstrong
• emphasized the value of acquiring land andhomes, vocations and skills.
• Washington believed blacks must do useful service to achieve recognition
• students created the buildings of Tuskegee, produced and cooked the food, etc.
• Washington was an apostle for industrial education that would not antagonize the white South and would carve out a place for blacks in communities
• it trained blacks to become farmers, mechanics, and domestic servents 
• Northern education prompted blacks to demand equality!
• Washington encouraged blacks to manage farms intelligently own land, act thriftily, be patient, be perserverent, adopt high morals and good manners
• Washington regarded science, mathematics, and history as impractical
• The Washington doctrine of industrial/vocational education for the great mass of blacks was hailed by whites in the North and in the South
• some critics denounced Washington's program as "education for the new slavery"
•  White Southerners liked Washington's relative disinterest in the political and civil rights for blacks
• Washington's program would consign blacks to an inferior economic and social status in Southern life
• "breaches": 1) spoke out against racial prejudice in Chicago-"prejudice was eating away at the vitals of the South," 2) met Teddy Roosevelt for lunch "a breach of racial etiquette."
• Washington believed that African Americans starting withso little would have to work up gradually before they could attain a position of power and respectibility.
• a relatively small group of blacks took serious exception to Washington's point of view
• W. E. B. Dubois, a youth African American who was trained at Fisk, Harvard (Dr. of Philosophy), and Berlin(German lectures...)
• Du Bois was born in Massachusetts, taught at Atlanta University
• Souls of Black Folk, criticitized Washington's "gospel of work and money"
• wrote like Thoreau
• Du Bois did not approve of the manner in which Washington publicly ignored or winked at the white South's virtual destruction of the political and civil status of African Americans
• p. 305

Chapter 13 Losing The Peace

• war was over
• could the South be reconciled?
• Republicans wanted to strengthen their position
• Democrats appeared "unpatriotic."
• black women, instrumental in campaigns
• blacks voted down the ticket Republican, Democrats were the racist party
• 1866, White retaliation, KKK
• secret societies developed
• Camelias and the Klan were the most powerful secret orders
• local efforts to suppress the Klan weren't effect
• habeus corpus was suspended
• 1865, white southerners resumed place at home
• 1871, recant of Confederacy
• white southerners were pardoned, Democratic party grew
• protective white militias formed
• whites kept blacks from the polls through terrorism
• black's houses and barns were destroyed
  
• the North had grown weary of the struggle for equality
  
• some blacks would not be silenced
• Supreme Court upheld blacks right to vote, declared Enforcement Act(black voter protection) of 1870-constitutional
• Democrats wanted to end Reconstruction in the South
  
• 1 878, armed forces in elections, not-allowed
• intimidation continued on a massive scale
• polling places were far from black communities
• dances and parties-bribes for black voters to comply
• obstacle: poll tax requirements, confusing election schemes, centralized election codes complicated process.
• poor farmers become dissatisfied with the Democratic Party
• radicals wanted regulation of railroads, state aid for agriculture, higher taxes on corporations
• The National Grange or Patrons of Husbandry was attracting thousands of farmers by 1870
• white solidarity with poor black farmers occurred
• blacks supported the Populist Party
• 1894, easier for blacks to vote, election machinery dismantled
• agrarian revolt collapsed in 1896, move for disenfranchisement continued
• disenfranchisement could work against poor whites
• a suffrage amendment disenfranchised blacks in Mississippi
• south Carolina disenfranchised blacks in 1895
• grandfather clause was created
• riots erupted at disenfranchisement
• Conservatives revived segregation of the races- laws against intermarriage
• blacks were banned from white hotels
• 1900s, many lynchings